Understanding Hegemonic Masculinity
Since the 1980s, research on gender issues has moved beyond focusing solely on sexual minorities or feminist perspectives, with more scholars turning to the study of masculinity.
In fact, whether from a postmodernist perspective challenging gender binaries or a feminist perspective advocating for women's status, deconstructing masculinity helps us reach the core of patriarchy.
In 1995, Australian sociologist R.W. Connell proposed four types of masculinities, one of which is "hegemonic masculinity."
As a typical post-structuralist, Connell argues that the emphasis and praise for specific masculinities are normative ideologies constructed within particular social and historical contexts.
Hegemonic masculinity is characterized by men with penises holding power and control over society, thereby becoming its rulers, while women, perceived as "lacking a penis," remain subordinate.
Patriarchal societies require men to conform to the societal role norms imposed by the "big Other" and to continuously achieve victories in the hegemonic struggles within the male world.
Men lacking in masculinity are often categorized as "castrated," or what is commonly referred to as "not manly enough."
This leads even men who identify with societal gender role norms to experience a lifetime of anxiety caused by unstable masculinity, often accompanied by stronger gender prejudices and violence against women.
So, what kind of alienation does hegemonic masculinity cause men, and what methods can we use to dismantle toxic hegemonic masculinity?
Is Masculinity Inherent?
The academic community has varied definitions of what constitutes masculinity, but the social constructionist perspective on masculinity has been widely accepted and extensively researched.
In different historical and cultural contexts, societal expectations for masculinity vary.
This is because patriarchy often collaborates with capitalism, neoliberalism, and even religious cultures to enforce essentialist norms under the guise of discipline.
We need to reexamine what masculinity truly means from a cross-cultural perspective.
In his cross-cultural study The Invention of Masculinity, renowned professor David Gilmore utilizes anthropological, psychological, and psychoanalytical research methods to conduct a global study of masculinity, creating a continuum of masculinity where different types fall within various regions of the spectrum.
At one end of the spectrum are cultures that heavily value physical violence, such as the Samburu of East Africa, the Fox tribe of North America, and the Tehuantepec in New Mexico.
In these cultures, men must demonstrate their masculinity through fighting, killing, and brutal rites of passage.
In the middle of the spectrum are cultures with more moderate expressions of masculinity, such as China, where masculinity is often associated with work ethic, physical strength, and family responsibility.
At the other end of the spectrum are cultures like that of the Tahitians, where masculinity is of little concern, and most men engage in domestic labor and rarely participate in conflicts.
Simone de Beauvoir, a leading figure in second-wave feminism, proposed that "one is not born, but rather becomes a woman."
Similarly, Gilmore's research suggests that men are not born as men; masculinity is not naturally formed with age and physiological maturation but is constructed within a specific historical context.
Hegemonic Masculinity and Alienated Men
The American Psychological Association (APA) states in its Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Boys and Men that "although masculinity varies across cultures, mainstream society has certain standards for masculinity, including opposition to femininity, pursuit of career achievement, and avoidance of appearing weak."
Masculinity is inherently unstable.
When a man adhering strictly to hegemonic masculinity is surpassed by a woman in his career or ridiculed by peers as "not manly enough," he may feel his masculinity is threatened.
To maintain hegemonic masculinity and avoid being perceived as "feminized," men may resort to repetitive behaviors such as risk-taking, excessive drinking, and aggression to constantly affirm their identity.
Furthermore, many psychological studies indicate that men are more likely than women to experience shame about mental health issues.
Many men are taught from a young age that "real men don't cry" and that boys should be braver and stronger, unshaken by minor issues.
A boy who frequently cries is often mocked and excluded from male groups, leading to the repression of emotions and concealment of vulnerability.
Research by Pederson and Vogel using structural equation modeling of 575 college students shows that men experiencing greater gender role conflict are more likely to self-stigmatize, reduce emotional expression, and consequently be less willing to seek mental health counseling.
From a Lacanian psychoanalytic perspective, human desire is the desire of the Other.
Unlike the primal desire of animalistic ontology, human desire is characterized by a yearning for others' recognition, with the regulation of desire often being the most subtle and effective.
For men, the desire to be a "real man" is an unconscious existence, a construct of symbolic order.
The process of men suppressing emotions, developing physical strength, and maintaining masculinity is not a testament to the existence of a subject but rather a sign of subject fragmentation and absence, where the male body is objectified.
As French philosopher Michel Foucault suggests, within vast power networks, everyone is both a subject exercising power and inevitably an object of power.
Although hegemonic masculinity emphasizes male dominance and guidance in society, it is evident that men, while conforming to hegemonic masculinity, also inevitably become its victims.